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Figure of speech communication marked by implicit comparison

A metaphor is a figure of spoken language that, for rhetorical effect, directly refers to one affair by mentioning some other.^[1] It may provide (or obscure) clarity or place hidden similarities between ii different ideas. Metaphors are ofttimes compared with other types of figurative language, such as antithesis, hyperbole, metonymy, and simile.^[2] Ane of the about commonly cited examples of a metaphor in English literature comes from the "All the earth'south a phase" monologue from As You Like It:

All the world's a phase,
And all the men and women merely players;
They take their exits and their entrances
And 1 man in his fourth dimension plays many parts,
His Acts existence seven ages. At showtime, the infant...
—William Shakespeare, As You Like Information technology, ii/7^[three]

This quotation expresses a metaphor because the world is non literally a stage, and most humans are not literally actors and actresses playing roles. By asserting that the world is a stage, Shakespeare uses points of comparison between the world and a phase to convey an understanding near the mechanics of the globe and the behavior of the people inside it.

According to the linguist Anatoly Liberman, "the use of metaphors is relatively tardily in the modern European languages; it is, in principle, a mail service-Renaissance phenomenon".^[4] In dissimilarity, in the ancient Hebrew psalms (around 1000 B.C.), 1 finds already vivid and poetic examples of metaphor such as, "The Lord is my rock, my fortress and my deliverer; my God is my rock, in whom I take refuge, my shield and the horn of my conservancy, my stronghold" and "The Lord is my shepherd, I shall not want." At the other extreme, some recent linguistic theories view all language in essence as metaphorical.^[5]

The give-and-take metaphor itself is a metaphor, coming from a Greek term pregnant "transference (of ownership)". The user of a metaphor alters the reference of the word, "carrying" information technology from one semantic "realm" to some other. The new meaning of the word might exist derived from an analogy betwixt the 2 semantic realms, only also from other reasons such as the distortion of the semantic realm - for example in sarcasm.

Etymology [edit]

The English discussion metaphor derives from the 16th-century Erstwhile French discussion métaphore, which comes from the Latin metaphora, "carrying over", and in turn from the Greek μεταφορά (metaphorá), "transference (of buying)",^[6] from μεταφέρω (metapherō), "to behave over", "to transfer"^[7] and that from μετά (meta), "behind", "along with", "across"^[8] + φέρω (pherō), "to carry", "to bear".^[nine]

Parts of a metaphor [edit]

The Philosophy of Rhetoric (1937) by rhetorician I. A. Richards describes a metaphor as having two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. The tenor is the subject to which attributes are ascribed. The vehicle is the object whose attributes are borrowed. In the previous instance, "the world" is compared to a phase, describing it with the attributes of "the stage"; "the world" is the tenor, and "a phase" is the vehicle; "men and women" is the secondary tenor, and "players" is the secondary vehicle.

Other writers^{[ which? ]} employ the general terms 'ground' and 'figure' to denote the tenor and the vehicle. Cognitive linguistics uses the terms 'target' and 'source', respectively.

Psychologist Julian Jaynes coined the terms 'metaphrand' and 'metaphier', plus two new concepts, 'paraphrand' and 'paraphier'.^{[10] [eleven]} 'Metaphrand' is equivalent to the metaphor-theory terms 'tenor', 'target', and 'ground'. 'Metaphier' is equivalent to the metaphor-theory terms 'vehicle', 'figure', and 'source'. In a uncomplicated metaphor, an obvious attribute of the metaphier exactly characterizes the metaphrand (eastward.g. the ship plowed the seas). With an inexact metaphor, however, a metaphier might have associated attributes or nuances – its paraphiers – that enrich the metaphor because they "project back" to the metaphrand, potentially creating new ideas – the paraphrands – associated thereafter with the metaphrand or fifty-fifty leading to a new metaphor. For example, in the metaphor "Pat is a tornado", the metaphrand is "Pat", the metaphier is "tornado". As metaphier, "tornado" carries paraphiers such as power, storm and air current, counterclockwise motility, and danger, threat, destruction, etc. The metaphoric meaning of "tornado" is inexact: one might understand that 'Pat is powerfully destructive' through the paraphrand of concrete and emotional destruction; another person might understand the metaphor equally 'Pat tin spin out of control'. In the latter case, the paraphier of 'spinning motion' has become the paraphrand 'psychological spin', suggesting an entirely new metaphor for emotional unpredictability, a possibly apt description for a human beingness hardly applicable to a tornado. Based on his analysis, Jaynes claims that metaphors not simply enhance clarification, simply "increase enormously our powers of perception...and our understanding of [the world], and literally create new objects".^{[10] : 50}

Every bit a type of comparison [edit]

Metaphors are most frequently compared with similes. Information technology is said, for case, that a metaphor is 'a condensed analogy' or 'analogical fusion' or that they 'operate in a similar mode' or are 'based on the aforementioned mental process' or however that 'the basic processes of illustration are at work in metaphor'. Information technology is also pointed out that 'a border betwixt metaphor and analogy is fuzzy' and 'the departure between them might be described (metaphorically) equally the distance between things being compared'. A metaphor asserts the objects in the comparison are identical on the signal of comparison, while a simile only asserts a similarity through use of words such as "like" or "as". For this reason a common-blazon metaphor is more often than not considered more than forceful than a simile.^{[12] [thirteen]}

The metaphor category contains these specialized types:

• Apologue: An extended metaphor wherein a story illustrates an of import attribute of the field of study.
• Antonym: A rhetorical dissimilarity of ideas by means of parallel arrangements of words, clauses, or sentences.^[14]
• Catachresis: A mixed metaphor, sometimes used past pattern and sometimes past blow (a rhetorical fault).
• Hyperbole: Excessive exaggeration to illustrate a bespeak.^[15]
• Parable: An extended metaphor told as an chestnut to illustrate or teach a moral or spiritual lesson, such equally in Aesop'south fables or Jesus' didactics method equally told in the Bible.
• Pun: A verbal device by which multiple definitions of a word or its homophones are used to give a judgement multiple valid readings, typically to humorous effect.
• Similitude: An extended simile or metaphor that has a motion picture office (Bildhälfte), a reality part (Sachhälfte), and a point of comparison (teritium comparationis).^[xvi] Similitudes are found in the parables of Jesus.

Metaphor vs metonymy [edit]

Metaphor is distinct from metonymy, both constituting two cardinal modes of thought. Metaphor works by bringing together concepts from different conceptual domains, whereas metonymy uses one chemical element from a given domain to refer to another closely related element. A metaphor creates new links between otherwise distinct conceptual domains, whereas a metonymy relies on pre-existent links within them.

For example, in the phrase "lands belonging to the crown", the word "crown" is a metonymy because some monarchs do indeed wearable a crown, physically. In other words, in that location is a pre-existent link between "crown" and "monarchy".^[17] On the other paw, when Ghil'advertizement Zuckermann argues that the Israeli language is a "phoenicuckoo cross with some magpie characteristics", he is using a metaphor.^{[18] : 4} In that location is no physical link between a language and a bird. The reason the metaphors "phoenix" and "cuckoo" are used is that on the i paw hybridic "Israeli" is based on Hebrew, which, similar a phoenix, rises from the ashes; and on the other hand, hybridic "Israeli" is based on Yiddish, which like a cuckoo, lays its egg in the nest of some other bird, tricking it to believe that information technology is its own egg. Furthermore, the metaphor "magpie" is employed because, according to Zuckermann, hybridic "Israeli" displays the characteristics of a magpie, "stealing" from languages such as Arabic and English.^{[18] : 4–6}

Subtypes [edit]

A dead metaphor is a metaphor in which the sense of a transferred image has become absent. The phrases "to grasp a concept" and "to gather what you've understood" utilise concrete action every bit a metaphor for agreement. The audience does not need to visualize the activity; dead metaphors normally go unnoticed. Some distinguish between a dead metaphor and a platitude. Others use "dead metaphor" to announce both.^[19]

A mixed metaphor is a metaphor that leaps from one identification to a second inconsistent with the starting time, e.g.:

I smell a rat [...] just I'll nip him in the bud" — Irish gaelic pol Boyle Roche

This course is often used equally a parody of metaphor itself:

If we can hit that bull's-eye and then the rest of the dominoes will fall similar a house of cards... Checkmate.

An extended metaphor, or conceit, sets up a chief subject field with several subsidiary subjects or comparisons. In the above quote from Every bit Yous Like It, the world is first described every bit a stage and then the subsidiary subjects men and women are further described in the aforementioned context.

An implicit metaphor has no specified tenor, although the vehicle is present. Grand. H. Abrams offers the following equally an example of an implicit metaphor: "That reed was as well fragile to survive the storm of its sorrows". The reed is the vehicle for the implicit tenor, someone's decease, and the "tempest" is the vehicle for the person's "sorrows".^[21]

Metaphor can serve as a device for persuading an audience of the user's argument or thesis, the so-chosen rhetorical metaphor.

In rhetoric and literature [edit]

Aristotle writes in his piece of work the Rhetoric that metaphors make learning pleasant: "To learn easily is naturally pleasant to all people, and words signify something, and so whatever words create knowledge in us are the pleasantest."^[22] When discussing Aristotle's Rhetoric, Jan Garret stated "metaphor most brings about learning; for when [Homer] calls old age "stubble", he creates agreement and knowledge through the genus, since both old age and stubble are [species of the genus of] things that have lost their bloom."^[23] Metaphors, according to Aristotle, accept "qualities of the exotic and the fascinating; but at the same fourth dimension we recognize that strangers exercise not accept the same rights as our fellow citizens".^[24]

Educational psychologist Andrew Ortony gives more explicit detail: "Metaphors are necessary equally a communicative device because they allow the transfer of coherent chunks of characteristics -- perceptual, cognitive, emotional and experiential -- from a vehicle which is known to a topic which is less so. In so doing they circumvent the problem of specifying i past one each of the often unnameable and innumerable characteristics; they avoid discretizing the perceived continuity of experience and are thus closer to experience and consequently more bright and memorable."^[25]

As style in speech and writing [edit]

Every bit a characteristic of speech and writing, metaphors can serve the poetic imagination. This allows Sylvia Plath, in her verse form "Cut", to compare the blood issuing from her cutting thumb to the running of a meg soldiers, "redcoats, every one"; and enabling Robert Frost, in "The Route Not Taken", to compare a life to a journey.^{[26] [27] [28]}

Metaphors can be implied and extended throughout pieces of literature.

Larger applications [edit]

Sonja G. Foss characterizes metaphors every bit "nonliteral comparisons in which a word or phrase from one domain of experience is practical to some other domain".^[29] She argues that since reality is mediated past the linguistic communication we use to depict it, the metaphors we use shape the world and our interactions to it.

A metaphorical visualization of the word anger.

The term metaphor is used to describe more basic or general aspects of experience and cognition:

• A cognitive metaphor is the clan of object to an experience outside the object's environs
• A conceptual metaphor is an underlying association that is systematic in both language and thought
• A root metaphor is the underlying worldview that shapes an private'south understanding of a situation
• A nonlinguistic metaphor is an association between 2 nonlinguistic realms of experience
• A visual metaphor uses an prototype to create the link between different ideas

Conceptual metaphors [edit]

Some theorists have suggested that metaphors are not simply stylistic, but that they are cognitively important equally well. In Metaphors We Live By, George Lakoff and Mark Johnson argue that metaphors are pervasive in everyday life, not just in linguistic communication, simply also in thought and action. A common definition of metaphor can be described as a comparing that shows how two things that are not alike in most ways are similar in another important fashion. They explicate how a metaphor is merely understanding and experiencing ane kind of matter in terms of another, chosen a "conduit metaphor". A speaker can put ideas or objects into containers, and then transport them forth a conduit to a listener who removes the object from the container to make meaning of it. Thus, advice is something that ideas go into, and the container is dissever from the ideas themselves. Lakoff and Johnson give several examples of daily metaphors in use, including "argument is war" and "time is coin". Metaphors are widely used in context to describe personal meaning. The authors suggest that communication tin be viewed equally a motorcar: "Communication is not what one does with the machine, merely is the machine itself."^[30]

Experimental evidence shows that "priming" people with cloth from i surface area will influence how they perform tasks and interpret language in a metaphorically related area.^{[note ane]}

Equally a foundation of our conceptual system [edit]

Cognitive linguists emphasize that metaphors serve to facilitate the understanding of one conceptual domain—typically an abstraction such every bit "life", "theories" or "ideas"—through expressions that chronicle to some other, more familiar conceptual domain—typically more concrete, such equally "journey", "buildings" or "food".^{[32] [33]} For example: we devour a book of raw facts, try to digest them, stew over them, permit them simmer on the dorsum-burner, regurgitate them in discussions, and cook up explanations, hoping they practise not seem one-half-baked.

A convenient short-manus way of capturing this view of metaphor is the following: CONCEPTUAL DOMAIN (A) IS CONCEPTUAL DOMAIN (B), which is what is called a conceptual metaphor. A conceptual metaphor consists of two conceptual domains, in which one domain is understood in terms of another. A conceptual domain is whatever coherent organization of experience. For example, nosotros have coherently organized knowledge about journeys that nosotros rely on in understanding life.^[33]

Lakoff and Johnson greatly contributed to establishing the importance of conceptual metaphor as a framework for thinking in language, leading scholars to investigate the original ways in which writers used novel metaphors and question the fundamental frameworks of thinking in conceptual metaphors.

From a sociological, cultural, or philosophical perspective, i asks to what extent ideologies maintain and impose conceptual patterns of thought by introducing, supporting, and adapting fundamental patterns of thinking metaphorically.^[34] To what extent does the ideology fashion and refashion the thought of the nation as a container with borders? How are enemies and outsiders represented? As diseases? As attackers? How are the metaphoric paths of fate, destiny, history, and progress represented? Equally the opening of an eternal monumental moment (German language fascism)? Or as the path to communism (in Russian or Czech for instance)?^{[ citation needed ]}

Some cognitive scholars accept attempted to take on board the idea that unlike languages take evolved radically unlike concepts and conceptual metaphors, while others concord to the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. German philologist Wilhelm von Humboldt contributed significantly to this debate on the relationship between civilisation, linguistic communication, and linguistic communities. Humboldt remains, however, relatively unknown in English-speaking nations. Andrew Goatly, in "Washing the Encephalon", takes on board the dual problem of conceptual metaphor as a framework implicit in the language as a system and the way individuals and ideologies negotiate conceptual metaphors. Neural biological research suggests some metaphors are innate, every bit demonstrated by reduced metaphorical understanding in psychopathy.^[35]

James West. Underhill, in Creating Worldviews: Credo, Metaphor & Language (Edinburgh Upwardly), considers the way individual voice communication adopts and reinforces certain metaphoric paradigms. This involves a critique of both communist and fascist discourse. Underhill's studies are situated in Czech and German, which allows him to demonstrate the ways individuals are thinking both within and resisting the modes by which ideologies seek to appropriate key concepts such every bit "the people", "the country", "history", and "struggle".

Though metaphors can be considered to be "in" language, Underhill'southward affiliate on French, English and ethnolinguistics demonstrates that we cannot excogitate of language or languages in anything other than metaphoric terms.

Nonlinguistic metaphors [edit]

Tombstone of a Jewish woman depicting broken candles, a visual metaphor of the cease of life.

Metaphors can map experience between two nonlinguistic realms. Musicologist Leonard B. Meyer demonstrated how purely rhythmic and harmonic events can express homo emotions.^[36] Information technology is an open question whether synesthesia experiences are a sensory version of metaphor, the "source" domain being the presented stimulus, such as a musical tone, and the target domain, beingness the experience in another modality, such as color.^[37]

Fine art theorist Robert Vischer argued that when we look at a painting, we "experience ourselves into it" by imagining our trunk in the posture of a nonhuman or inanimate object in the painting. For example, the painting The Lonely Tree by Caspar David Friedrich shows a tree with contorted, arid limbs.^{[38] [39]} Looking at the painting, we imagine our limbs in a similarly contorted and barren shape, evoking a feeling of strain and distress. Nonlinguistic metaphors may exist the foundation of our experience of visual and musical art, as well as trip the light fantastic and other art forms.^{[forty] [41]}

In historical linguistics [edit]

In historical onomasiology or in historical linguistics, a metaphor is defined as a semantic modify based on a similarity in form or function betwixt the original concept and the target concept named past a word.^[42]

For instance, mouse: modest, greyness rodent with a long tail → small, grayness computer device with a long cord.

Some recent linguistic theories view all language in essence as metaphorical.^[43]

Historical theories [edit]

Aristotle's discusses the creation of metaphors at the end of his Poetics: "But the greatest matter by far is to exist a master of metaphor. It is the one matter that cannot exist learnt from others; and information technology is likewise a sign of genius, since a good metaphor implies an intuitive perception of the similarity in dissimilars."^[44]

Baroque literary theorist Emanuele Tesauro defines the metaphor "the most witty and acute, the most strange and marvelous, the about pleasant and useful, the nearly eloquent and fecund office of the human intellect". There is, he suggests, something divine in metaphor: the world itself is God'south poem^[45] and metaphor is not just a literary or rhetorical effigy but an analytic tool that can penetrate the mysteries of God and His creation.^[46]

Friedrich Nietzsche makes metaphor the conceptual middle of his early on theory of club in On Truth and Lies in the Non-Moral Sense.^[47] Some sociologists have institute his essay useful for thinking about metaphors used in society and for reflecting on their own use of metaphor. Sociologists of religion note the importance of metaphor in religious worldviews, and that it is incommunicable to think sociologically about religion without metaphor.^[48]

Come across also [edit]

• Ingemination
• Camel's nose
• Colemanballs
• Conceptual blending
• Description
• Experience model
• Hypocatastasis
• Ideasthesia
• Listing of English language-language metaphors
• Literal and figurative language
• Metaphor identification procedure
• Metaphor in philosophy
• Metonymy
• Misnomer
• Origin of language
• Origin of spoken communication
• Pataphor
• Personification
• Reification (fallacy)
• Sarcasm
• Simile
• Synecdoche
• Illustration
• Tertium comparationis
• War as metaphor
• Earth Hypotheses

Notes [edit]

1. ^ "In sum, there are now numerous results from comprehension-oriented studies suggesting that (i) comprehending metaphorical language activates concrete source domain concepts, and that (2) activating detail concrete perceptual or motor cognition affects subsequent reasoning and language comprehension almost a metaphorically connected abstract domain"^[31]

References [edit]

Citations [edit]

1. ^ Compare: "Definition of METAPHOR". www.merriam-webster.com . Retrieved 29 March 2016. [...] a effigy of oral communication in which a give-and-take or phrase literally denoting i kind of object or idea is used in identify of another to propose a likeness or analogy between them [... .]
2. ^ The Oxford Companion to The English Linguistic communication, second Edition (e-book). Oxford University Press. 2018. ISBN978-0-nineteen-107387-8.
3. ^ "As You Like Information technology: Entire Play". Shakespeare.mit.edu. Retrieved 4 March 2012.
4. ^ "The last shot at American Idioms". 4 September 2019.
5. ^ "Radio 4 – Reith Lectures 2003 – The Emerging Mind". BBC. Retrieved 4 March 2012.
6. ^ μεταφορά, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus.
7. ^ cdasc3D%2367010 μεταφέρω, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English language Lexicon, on Perseus.
8. ^ μετά, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Dictionary, on Perseus.
9. ^ φέρω, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Dictionary, on Perseus.
10. ^ ^{a b} Jaynes, Julian (2000) [1976]. The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind (PDF). Houghton Mifflin. ISBN0-618-05707-2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 August 2019. Retrieved 24 Oct 2019.
11. ^ Pierce, Dann L. (2003). "Affiliate 5". Rhetorical Criticism and Theory in Practice. McGraw-Hill. ISBN9780072500875.
12. ^ The Oxford Companion to the English Language (1992) pp.653
13. ^ The Columbia Encyclopedia (sixth edition)
14. ^ "Definition of Antithesis".
15. ^ "Definition of HYPERBOLE".
16. ^ Adolf Jülicher, Die Gleichnisreden Jesu, 2nd ed (Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1910).
17. ^ "Definition of METONYMY".
18. ^ ^{a b} Zuckermann, Ghil'advertizing (2020). Revivalistics: From the Genesis of Israeli to Language Reclamation in Commonwealth of australia and Beyond. New York: Oxford Academy Printing. ISBN9780199812790.
19. ^ Working with the metaphor of life and death
20. ^ "Zapp Brannigan (Character)". IMDb . Retrieved 21 September 2014.
21. ^ One thousand. H. Abrams and Geoffrey Galt Harpham, A Glossary of Literary Terms, 11th ed. (Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning, 2015), 134.
22. ^ Aristotle, W. Rhys Roberts, Ingram Bywater, and Friedrich Solmsen. Rhetoric. New York: Modern Library, 1954. Print.
23. ^ Garret, Jan. "Aristotle on Metaphor." , Excerpts from Poetics and Rhetoric. N.p., 28 March 2007. Spider web. 29 Sept. 2014.
24. ^ Moran, Richard. 1996. Artifice and persuasion: The piece of work of metaphor in the rhetoric. In Essays on Aristotle's rhetoric, ed. Amelie Oksenberg Rorty, 385–398. Berkeley: University of California Printing.
25. ^ Ortony, Andrew (Winter 1975). "Why metaphors are necessary and not just squeamish". Educational Theory. 25 (one): 45–53. doi:ten.1111/j.1741-5446.1975.tb00666.10.
26. ^ "Cut". Sylvia Plath Forum. Retrieved 4 March 2012.
27. ^ "Sylvia Plath Forum: Home page". www.sylviaplathforum.com. Archived from the original on 12 September 2010.
28. ^ "1. The Route Non Taken. Frost, Robert. 1920. Mountain Interval". Bartleby.com. Retrieved 4 March 2012.
29. ^ Foss, Sonja Thousand. (1988). Rhetorical Criticism: Exploration and Do (4 ed.). Long Grove, Illinois: Waveland Press (published 2009). p. 249. ISBN9781577665861 . Retrieved 4 October 2018.
30. ^ Lakoff, G. & Johnson, M. Metaphors Nosotros Live By (IL: University of Chicago Press, 1980), Chapters ane–3. (pp. iii–13).
31. ^ Sato, Manami; Schafer, Amy J.; Bergen, Benjamin K. (2015). "Metaphor priming in judgement product: Concrete pictures touch abstract language production". Acta Psychologica. 156: 136–142. doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2014.09.010. ISSN 0001-6918. PMID 25443987.
32. ^ Lakoff G.; Johnson 1000. (2003) [1980]. Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: University of Chicago Printing. ISBN978-0-226-46801-iii.
33. ^ ^{a b} Zoltán Kövecses. (2002) Metaphor: a applied introduction. Oxford University Press US. ISBN 978-0-19-514511-3.
34. ^ McKinnon, AM. (2013). 'Ideology and the Market Metaphor in Rational Choice Theory of Religion: A Rhetorical Critique of "Religious Economies"'. Critical Sociology, vol 39, no. 4, pp. 529-543.[1]
35. ^ Meier, Brian P.; et al. (September 2007). "Declining to have the moral high basis: Psychopathy and the vertical representation of morality". Personality and Individual Differences. 43 (4): 757–767. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2007.02.001. Retrieved 1 November 2016.
36. ^ Meyer, L. (1956) Emotion and Meaning in Music. Chicago: University of Chicago Printing
37. ^ Blechner, M. (2018) The Mindbrain and Dreams: An Exploration of Dreaming, Thinking, and Creative Creation. NY: Routledge
38. ^ Blechner, M. (1988) Differentiating empathy from therapeutic activity. Contemporary Psychoanalysis, 24:301–310.
39. ^ Vischer, R. (1873) Über das optische Formgefühl: Ein Beitrag zur Aesthetik. Leipzig: Hermann Credner. For an English translation of selections, come across Air current, Eastward. (1963) Art and Anarchy. London: Faber and Faber.
40. ^ Johnson, G. & Larson, S. (2003) "Something in the manner she moves" – Metaphors of musical motility. Metaphor and Symbol, 18:63–84
41. ^ Whittock, T. (1992) The office of metaphor in dance. British Journal of Aesthetics, 32:242–249.
42. ^ Cf. Joachim Grzega (2004), Bezeichnungswandel: Wie, Warum, Wozu? Ein Beitrag zur englischen und allgemeinen Onomasiologie, Heidelberg: Winter, and Bare, Andreas (1997), Prinzipien des lexikalischen Bedeutungswandels am Beispiel der romanischen Sprachen, Tübingen: Niemeyer.
43. ^ "Radio 4 – Reith Lectures 2003 – The Emerging Listen". BBC. Retrieved four March 2012.
44. ^ Cf. The Rhetoric and Poetics of Aristotle, ed. Friedrich Solmsen (New York: Random House, 1954), 1459a v–eight.
45. ^ Cassell Dictionary Italian Literature. Bloomsbury Academic. 1996. p. 578. ISBN9780304704644.
46. ^ Sohm, Philip (1991). Pittoresco. Marco Boschini, His Critics, and Their Critiques of Painterly Brushwork in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century Italy. Cambridge Academy Press. p. 126. ISBN9780521382564.
47. ^ "T he Nietzsche Aqueduct: On Truth and Lie in an Extra-Moral Sense". oregonstate.edu.
48. ^ McKinnon, A. 1000. (2012). "Metaphors in and for the Sociology of Organized religion: Towards a Theory afterward Nietzsche" (PDF). Periodical of Contemporary Religion. pp. 203–216.

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• Herscberger, Ruth (Summer 1943). "The Structure of Metaphor". The Kenyan Review. 5 (3): 433–443. JSTOR 4332426.
• Rudmin, Floyd W. (1991). "Having: A Brief History of Metaphor and Meaning". Syracuse Police force Review. 42: 163. Retrieved 11 October 2013.
• Somov, Georgij Yu (2013). "The interrelation of metaphors and metonymies in sign systems of visual art: An instance analysis of works by V. I. Surikov". Semiotica. 2013 (193): 31–66. doi:10.1515/sem-2013-0003.

External links [edit]

Look up metaphor in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikiquote has quotations related to Metaphors .

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Metaphors.

• History of metaphor on In Our Time at the BBC
• A short history of metaphor
• Audio illustrations of metaphor as figure of speech
• Elevation Ten Metaphors of 2008
• Shakespeare's Metaphors
• Definition and Examples
• Metaphor Examples (categorized)
• List of aboriginal Greek words starting with μετα-, on Perseus
• Metaphor and Phenomenology commodity in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• Metaphors algebra
• Pérez-Sobrino, Paula (2014). "Significant construction in verbomusical environments: Conceptual disintegration and metonymy" (PDF). Journal of Pragmatics. 70: 130–151. doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2014.06.008.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphor

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